1. Hold back
1.(a) Hold somebody/something - back - to prevent somebody/something from moving forward or crowing something e.g.: The police failed to hold back the crowd.
معناها كف \ منع
(b) Hold something - back - to stop yourself from expressing how you really feel.
e.g. She just managed to hold back her distress and tears.
ايضا المعنى = كف \ حبس دموعها وكآبتها
حاولت كف دموعها وكآبتها \ اضطرابها والخ
2 hold down
(a) Hold somebody down - to prevent somebody from having his/her freedom or rights.
e.g. The people were held down by the repressive regime of Stalin.
كبح جماحهم من قبل السلطة \ النظام الغاشم ( القمعي)
(b) Hold something - down - to limit something, esp. a noise.
e.g. Hold the blare of your radio down. because I want to sleep/because I can't endure it.
أخمد \ اخفت صوت المذياع
نلاحظ أن المفعول يأتي بين الفعل وملحقه
3. Hold in
hold something In - to not express how you really feel
e.g. please hold in your anger.
اكتم غضبك , اكتم غيظك \ هدأ من حالك \ تمالك نفسك
4 Hold off
(a) Hold off - (of rain or a storm) to not start
e.g. The rain held off just long enough for us to have our picnic.
بمعنى توقف \ انقطع \ هدأ قليلا
(b) Hold somebody/something - off- to stop somebody/something defeating you
e.g. Nusie held off all the last minute challengers and won the race in a new record time.
التغلب على الخصم \ تملك زمام الأمور
5 Hold on
(a) Hold on - (1) used to tell somebody to wait/stop
e.g. Hold on a minute. as I have to enquire of you something.
الطلب من شخص التوقف بعض الوقت \ توقف يا فلان لي معك كلام
Hold on! This isn't the right road.
توقف يا صاحب هذا ليس الطريق الصحيح \ انك تسلك الطريق المغلوط
(2) to survive in a difficult or dangerous situation
e.g. Some Tsunami stricken people managed to hold on until help arrived.
يمنع \ يعيق يحول دون بقائهم قيد الحياة وربما أماتهم !!
(b) Hold on (to something/somebody)/hold onto something - to keep holding somebody/something.
Hold on and don't let him go until I say so.
أقبض \ امنع شخص ما من الذهاب \ امنعه أن يفلت من يدك حتى أقرر في حال سبيله \ حتى أقول كلمتي بشأنه
(c) hold on to something/hold onto something - to keep something for somebody else or for longer than usual
e.g. I will hold onto your mail until you get back.
يحتفظ \ يبقي على شيء كما لو أمانة أو وديعة
سأحتفط ببريدك حتى تعود
6. Hold out
(a) Hold out - (1) to last. esp. in a difficult situation
e.g. We can stay here as long as our supplies hold out.
نستطيع البقاء ( نقاوم ) طالما مؤننا فيها الكفاية أي بمعنى ( صمود )
طالما مخزوننا من المؤن يكفينا
The house will not hold out more than a year or two.
( يصمد ) الدار لن تصمد طويلا \ لن تقاوم أكثر من سنة أو سنتين
(b) Hold out something - to offer a chance. hope. possibility of something.
e.g. Doctors hold out some hope of her survival.
بمعنى ( يطمأن) يمنح بعض الأمل أو الرجاء
طمأنها الأطباء بعض الأمل في الحياة
7. Hold ....over
Hold something ... over- (usually passive)
(1) to not deal with something immediately: to have something to be dealt with later.
e.g. The matter was held over until the next meeting.
يؤجل
(2) to show a movie, play etc. for longer than planned
e.g. The film proved so popular that it was held over for another week.
يستمر \ يطول عرضه
اثبت الفلم أنه كان مرغوبا لدى الناس( شعبيا ) ,ولهذا استمر عرضه لأسبوع أخر
وتستطيع ترجمة المفردة ب ( رائج )

Comparison between there and demonstrative pronouns

Who claim there is a subject \ question tag ?

Though many books apparently tell that ( there or here ) is never the subject, but the noun that follows, some people still stick in their minds agreeing ( there ) = subject and their evidence is that ( there) = the subject in the question tag ?

The idea is not so, it is just special rule (( The matter is not only with there )) ?

Here are examples :

1- There is a cow , isn't there ?

2- This is a cow , isn't it ? Why we don't say [isn't this] ?

3- That is a cow, isn't it? Why we don't say [isn't that]?

4- These are cows, aren't they ? Why we don't say [ aren't these ] ?

5- Those are cows, aren't they ? And not aren't those ?

Consider the following examples :

This is yours, isn’t it? Not isn't this

Those don't work, do they? Those 100 % = subject

However, we don't say : Do those \ are those

Hello
I answer my question this time
Though some people pretend ( there or here ) = subject and though saying it can act as a pronoun, and however, they lastly surrender to say ( dummy pronoun ) i.e ( not real ), so I want to add only one logical reason :
If there or here = subject, why then the verb agrees with the noun comes after there or here ?
if the noun = singular, the verb should be singular as well, and it is the same with plural.
For my question : Which is the subject ?
There are lots of reasons why the road should not have built
This is a complex sentence. It contains main clause ( There are lots of reasons ) and a subordinate clause ( why the road ..)
We know the subordinate clause can't stand alone and the meaning is always in the main clause
The main verb and the main subject are always in the main clause ( principal)
So, omit the subordinate or don't think of it, so that you don't get confused
Clearly and undoubtedly : lots of reasons = the subject

https://www.tolearnenglish.com/forum...2Fthe+subject+

1
An Introduction to English Grammar Syntax


By Nadia Hussein Salim
page 21 found inside
Sentences beginning with "there" and "here"
Inverted order can also occur in a sentence that begins with the word "there" or "here". When a statement begins with one of these words, the verb will come before the subject.
To find the subject of this kind of sentence, drop the word there or here. Then put the rest of the words in their natural order. Just remember that "there" or "here" can never be the subject of a sentence:
Inverted order: Here arrive the guests on time.
Natural order: The guests arrive on time.
Inverted order: There is someone in the room.
Natural order: Someone is in the room

2
English Grammar For Dummies


By Wendy M. Anderson, Geraldine Woods, Lesley J. Ward
page 112
There \ here is a million dollars

1. Ask yourself the questions: What’s happening? What is? Answer: Is.
2. Ask yourself the questions: Who is? What is? Answer: ? Did you say here is? But here can’t be a subject (it isn’t a noun or a pronoun — and to be a legal subject, it must be a noun equivalent). Neither can there. Here and there are empty subjects or fakers. Although they’re in the place usually occupied by the subject, here and there don’t decide the form of the verb. You don’t know whether to say is or are until you get to the real subject (which is, of course, what the verb agrees with — refer to Chapter 2 for more information). Fill in the gaps in each of these sentences with is or are to see what the subject really is: Here . . . a frog for you to put in Bobo’s bed. It has to be Here is a frog; the verb agrees with frog, so that’s the real subject (a frog is here for you to put in Bobo’s bed).
   

inverted order \ examples

Into the hall , marched the band
Natural : The band marched into the hall
Up the tree climbed the monkey
Natural order : The monkey climbed up the tree
monkey = the subject

But for your help = if you hadn't helped me Or without your help
لولا مساعدتك

But for your help, I would have failed
Without your help, I would have failed


نفس الشرطية \ ماضي افتراضي
لولا مساعدتك لكنت قد فشلت \ لفشلت

The farmers say recent inflation has driven them to the brink of ruin
قال الفلاحون أن التضخم المالي قد جعلهم على شفير هاوية الإفلاس
أي بمعنى في النقطة الحرجة
ruin

noun
physical destruction or collapse
The remains of a building that has suffered much damage
a dramatic decline; a downfall=
verb
damage irreparably; reduce to a state of ruin. \\ reduce to poverty or bankruptcy.
literary fall headlong

ruined
= adjective DERELICT, in ruins, dilapidated, ruinous, tumbledown, ramshackle, decrepit, falling to pieces, crumbling, decaying, disintegrating; informal shambly


ruin
noun
the buildings were saved from ruin: DISINTEGRATION, decay, disrepair, dilapidation, ruination; destruction, demolition, wreckage.
the ruins of a church: REMAINS, remnants, fragments, relics; rubble, debris, wreckage.
electoral ruin for Labour: DOWNFALL, collapse, defeat, undoing, failure, breakdown, ruination; Waterloo
shopkeepers are facing ruin: BANKRUPTCY, insolvency, penury, poverty, destitution, impoverishment, indigence; failure
preservation, triumph, wealth

The Book of Thel
By William Blake
III
Then Thel astonish'd view'd the Worm upon its dewy bed.
"Art thou a Worm? Image of weakness, art thou but a Worm?
I see thee like an infant wrapped in the Lily's leaf;
Ah, weep not, little voice, thou can'st not speak, but thou can'st weep.
Is this a Worm? I see thee lay helpless & naked, weeping,
And none to answer, none to cherish thee with mother's smiles."
The Clod of Clay heard the Worm's voice, & raisd her pitying head;
She bow'd over the weeping infant, and her life exhal'd
In milky fondness; then on Thel she fix'd her humble eyes.
"O beauty of the vales of Har! we live not for ourselves;
Thou seest me the meanest thing, and so I am indeed;
My bosom of itself is cold, and of itself is dark,
But he that loves the lowly, pours his oil upon my head,
And kisses me, and binds his nuptial bands around my breast,
And says: 'Thou mother of my children, I have loved thee
And I have given thee a crown that none can take away.'
But how this is, sweet maid, I know not, and I cannot know;
I ponder, and I cannot ponder; yet I live and love."
The daughter of beauty wip'd her pitying tears with her white veil,
And said: "Alas! I knew not this, and therefore did I weep.
That God would love a Worm, I knew, and punish the evil foot
That, wilful, bruis'd its helpless form; but that he cherish'd it
With milk and oil I never knew; and therefore did I weep,
And I complaind in the mild air, because I fade away,
And lay me down in thy cold bed, and leave my shining lot."
"Queen of the vales," the matron Clay answered, "I heard thy sighs,
And all thy moans flew o'er my roof, but I have call'd them down.
Wilt thou, O Queen, enter my house? 'tis given thee to enter
And to return: fear nothing, enter with thy virgin feet."

بحوث ومصادر :

researches and criticism
"THE BOOK OF THEL" BY WILLIAM BLAKE: A CRITICAL READING
BY MARJORIE LEVINSON
That "the name Thel is derived from a Creek root meaning 'desire' " is no news to any serious reader of Blake. The above quotation appears in David Perkins' textbook anthology, where it Is given as a footnote to the title, "The Book of Thel." Yet the suggestive identity between Thel and Desire is largely ignored. When W. j. T. Mitchell describes the poem's action as "the story of a young woman who questions her own usefulness and purpose in a world where everything dies or fades away,"2 he expresses a critical consensus. In the main, "The Book of Thel" is read as a Little Girl Lost/Found poem writ large. The personification (Thel) is naturalized into character and the "character's" psyche is analyzed, its parts and processes used to support statements about Blake's view of human development. Thel is treated as a psychological construct having ontological density; she is seen to figure either as the true subject of the poem or as a "surrogate for the reader," that is, a character who feels, thinks, and behaves as we might. We read of "her desire" for Wisdom and Love as if Desire—the thing personified—were not synonymous with Thel but a motivation impelling a rounded character. When Desire is thus regarded as the "young woman's" defining characteristic, or as the object of her investigations, the poem presents itself as an allegory of psychosexual development. Although the Little Girl and Little Boy Lost and Found poems of the Songs of Innocence and Experience tend toward assuming this form, they are saved in the end from achieving allegorical fixity. The Songs exist within a symbolic frame of reference; they appear under the aegis of a major symbol (Innocence or Experience) and a minor one (Piper or Bard)! We cannot abstract event or character from idea because the symbol intervenes, preventing the two levels from disengaging. "The Book of Thal," lacking this context, offers no obvious resistance to allegorization. Blake's notorious disdain for allegory'—specifically, for the dualistic ways of thinking it encourages--did not, evidently, pre-vent him from writing one. His remarks, however, should temper
----
2
Thel is a poem in which the sceptical enquiries of a determined young woman thoroughly unmask patriarchal ideology, an ideology which promised women that heterosexual romantic and maternal roles equalled heavenly fulfilment, but which Thel discovers amount to nothing less than death.
---
3
Section 7 (pp. 65-6). The opening quotation from Blake's poem refers to the weak-willed sexuality of the timid Thel, who can never move out of her fantasy world of unborn innocence. Wright changes the context of the "little curtain of flesh" entirely. His curtain is one drawn back and then opening onto the memory of his mother's death in 1964. He was in Rome as a Fulbright student at the time and because of travel complications was unable to return for her funeral. He imagines the eight years his father spent as a widower in "the cave of cold air." The final half-line, from the familiar hymn, serves as a benediction for these two "lost" souls, in the sense not of defeated or hopeless but of no longer present. The "still small voice of calm" also expresses a desire for the tranquil voice of God to quiet the maniacal honking in the Roman streets below.
--
4
The creatures Thel meets repeatedly urge faith and self-sacrifice, doctrines with clear biblical and Christian antecedents. Each of her temporary companions can be considered as articulate emblems in a Book of Nature from which Thel is meant to learn the same lessons presented in the books of the New Testament. The Bible - or, more precisely, its contemporary interpreters - may have also played a role in determining Blake's meter in The!, the iambic septenary or fourteener that soon became his standard line for illuminated poetry (Ostriker, Vision 87-8). Robert Lowth, in his verse translation of Isaiah (1778) and Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews (English translation 1787), claimed that the books of the Old Testament were originally delivered as oral poetry with variable line length, including fourteener (Bogen is; Essick, Language of Adam 144-5). Other influences, including Macpherson's rhythmic prose and George Chap-man's translations of Homer, probably helped shape Blake's long line, but he may have believed that he was writing in a measure authorized by the original form of the Bible.
--
5
(Thel). An even closer bond joins TM and Ecclesiastes, the most likely source (12.6) for the 'silver rod' and 'golden bowl' of the Motto. Both works make extensive use of the interrogative and, like Thel, the speaker of Ecclesiastes journeys in search of the meaning of life, ends at the grave (man's 'long home', 12.5), and learns lessons only of mortality. He too had tried to learn from the creatures of nature, 'for that which befalleth ( = to happen especially as if by fate) the sons of men befalleth beasts; ... so that a man bath no preeminence above a beast' (gag). Like Thel's instructors, the 'Preacher' in Ecclesiastes knows that 'One generation passes away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth for ever' ( = to remain stable or fixed in a state a love) (14 Yet, more like Thel than the Lilly or Clod of Clay, the Preacher takes no solace in this knowledge but seems burdened by it. In several significant ways, The Book of Thel is Blake's version of Ecclesiastes, with an innocent young woman substituted for the melancholy patriarch for whom 'all is vanity.
--
Har
وادي الكذب يأتي بهذا الوصف ,أو أسم جبل كما ترجمته
Har and Heva = Jewish origin
ادم وحواء تعبير عن خطيئة الإنسان (عبرية )
Confronted by approaching extinction, Tiriel retreats to his conception of an earthly paradise, the vales of liar. As Har means "mountain" in Hebrew, the very phrase "vales of liar" is an irony, possibly in deliberate contrast to the prophetic cry that "every valley shall be exalted". Blake's vales of Har were to be transformed later into the lower level or limit of the state-of-being he called Beulah or Innocence. Here, in Mid, this state is exposed only in its aspect of natural ignorance. of perpetual infants aging into idiocy in the persons of Har and Heva. the Adam and Eve of this barren paradise. They are guarded by Mnetha, tutelary genius of their state. Her name is evidently founded on an amalgam of Athena and Mnemosyne, Urizenic =( wisdom) and memory as mother of the Classical muses. Damon (p 307) allegorizes Mar and Heva as eighteenth-century poetry and painting, but that seems too narrow an interpretation. Har is natural man, the isolated selfhood that can avoid death only as Swift's Struldbrug avoid it. He can also be compared to Tennyson's Tithonus and Eliot's Gerontion, ( little –old man) for they also age without being reborn in the imagination. liar was the creator of Tiriel, even as man entrapped in a state of nature invents Urizen as his god
The meaning of STRULDBRUG is one of a class of imaginary persons who can never die but who are declared dead in law at the age of 80 and live on wretchedly ...
-
Life of William Blake
CHAPTER X
IN the same year that the Songs of Innocence were published, Blake profited by his new discovery to engrave another illustrated poem. It is in a very different strain, one, however, analogous to that running through nearly all his subsequent writings, or Books,' as he called them. The Book of Thel is a strange mystical allegory, full of tender beauty and enigmatic meaning. Thel, youngest of 'the Daughters of the Seraphim' (personification of humanity, I infer), is afflicted with scepticism, with forebodings of life's brevity and nothingness :—She in paleness sought the secret air To fade away like morning beauty from her mortal day ; Down by the river of Mona her soft voice is heard, And thus her gentle lamentation falls like morning dew.

Indicate the underlined as direct object , indirect object , subject or object complement

Od = direct object \ Oi = indirect object \ Cs = subject complement \ Co= object complement

Will someone get a doctor, quickly! Od
George and Paul both became famous doctors. Cs
Do you call yourself a doctor? Od , Co
May I call you Jenny? ( direct object , object complement)
May I call you a taxi or something?
( indirect object, direct object )
Call me anything you like.
object complement or direct object ( because me = indirect object)
It’s so cold. I can’t get warm. ( Cs, Cs)
I can’t get my hands warm. ( Od , Co )
Keep quiet. Keep those children quiet. Cs , Od, Co
Can't you give them something to keep them quiet?
Oi , Od, Od
The young man was slowly going mad. Cs
His mother-in- laws was driving him mad. Od, Co
The driver turned the corner too quickly. Od
The weather is turning warmer. Cs
The hot weather turned all the milk sure. Od , Co
The young man grew very depressed. Cs
He grew his hair long. Od , Co
He had made a great mistake. Od
His in-laws had simply made him their servant. Od , Co
His wife sometimes made him curry. Oi , Od
But this only made him more miserable. Od, Co
( there is no another object to say him = indirect object )
Show me your passport. Show me. Oi , Od , Oi
( in 2 = show me your passport \ it is not necessary to be repeated )
[already understood]
Did you see anyone? Did you say anything? Od , Od
I didn’t tell anybody anything. Oi , Od

Directions: Rewrite the following sentences, making the comparisons clear and complete.
Example: I paid Brett back before you.
I paid Brett back before I paid you back.
OR
I paid Brett back before you did.
1. The center on the basketball team is as tall if not taller than the guard.
The center on the basketball may be or as tall as the guard.
The center on the basketball team is either as tall as the guard or taller than him.
2. The trip to Cancun was more fun than any vacation I have ever taken.
The trip to Cancun was funnier than any other vacation I have ever seen.
3. Jensen screamed louder at the cat than Matt.
Jensen screamed louder than Matt screamed at the cat.
4. Alaska is larger than any state in the union.
Alaska is larger than any other state in the union.
Directions: Rewrite the following sentences, correcting errors in sentence continuity, parallelism, and shifts.
1. The quarterback is more likely to be injured than any player on the team.
2. He picked up the phone, and then the number was dialed with care.
3. Although you need a haircut doesn’t mean you will look funny in the photograph.
4. A grand slam is when a batter hits a home run when the bases are loaded.'
5. You forgot to give me my allowance is why I don’t have any money.
6. My hairstylist asked did I want my hair highlighted.
7. MacKenzie is either lying, or Carly has her facts wrong.
Either MacKenzie lied or Chloe has her facts wrong.
8. I won’t go to a movie theater where you can’t buy popcorn.
I will not go to a movie theater if \ in case you can't find popcorn to buy there.
9. I told Max the answer before Tom.
I told Max the answer before I told Tom.
I told Max the answer before Tom told him.
10. The height of the grass was hard to mow.
The height of the grass made it hard to mow.
The grass was hard to mow because of its height

Answers :
1. The quarterback is more likely to be injured that any other player on the team.
2. He picked up the phone and then dialed the number with care.

3. Although you need a haircut, you won't necessarily look funny in the photograph. Your needing a haircut doesn't mean you will look funny in the photograph. The fact that you need a haircut doesn't mean you will look funny in the photograph.
4. A grand slam is hitting a home run when the bases are loaded. A grand slam occurs if a batter hits a home run when the bases are loaded. Hitting a home run when the bases are loaded is a grand slam.
5. Because you forgot to give me my allowance, I don't have any money. You forgot to give me my allowance, so I don't have any money.
6. My hair stylist asked if I wanted my hair highlighted.
My hair stylist asked, "Do you want your hair highlighted?"
8. She won't buy anything from that store if it doesn't give her a discount. She won't buy anything from that store if it doesn't offer discounts.

Directions: In the following sentences, add commas where needed and be prepared to tell the rule that applies to each. Write “correct” next to sentences that need no commas.
Example: During the final act, everybody dies.
1. A person who can’t balance a checkbook shouldn’t try to run a business.
2. Her nephew is a rude obnoxious child.
3. People who have to leave the show at intermission.
4. Bill Gates for example gives millions to charity each year.
5. I didn’t read the book nor did I see the movie.
6. I bought three new hairclips.
7. All Fido does is eat sleep and make a mess.
8. The candidate took office on January 10 2004 in Washington D.C.
9. Although he is my twin brother we do not look at all alike.
10. “I am leaving now” the nurse said quietly to the patient.
11. The driver his cell phone ringing loudly was easily distracted.
12. At the grand opening of the new mall he gave a speech about economic growth.
13. Students who do not study usually do poorly in college.
14. I need your raincoat not your umbrella.
15. My father who owns a dry cleaning store was able to get the spot out of my dress.
16. New York my favorite city is very crowded in the spring.
17. He needed a haircut but didn’t get one.
18. Meredith you are going to Los Angeles on business aren’t you?
19. She analyzed the poem “Mending Wall” for her English assignment.
20. You know of course that she is not coming to the party.
21. In fact their bank account was seriously overdrawn.
22. Marcella said that the Writing Center needed additional assistants.
23. His term lasted from April 2004 to January 2005.
24. The basketball center for our college team is seven feet three inches tall.
25. In the middle of a huge project at work the manager resigned.

Answers :
Test Yourself
I. correct
2. Her nephew is a rude, obnoxious child.
3. People who have to, should leave the show at intermission.
4. Bill Gates, for example, supports many charitable causes.
5. I didn't read the book, nor did I see the movie.
6. Correct
7. All my cat does is eat, sleep, and make a mess.
8. The governor took office on January 10, 2010, in Raleigh, North Carolina.
9. Although he is my twin brother, we do not look at all alike.
10. "I am leaving now," the nurse said quietly to the patient.
11. The driver, his cell phone ringing loudly, was easily distracted. 12. Speaking in a very low voice, the politician admitted that he had lied in his campaign ads.
13. Correct
14. I need your raincoat, not your umbrella.
15. My father, who owns a dry cleaning business, was able to get the spot out of my dress.
16. New York, my favorite city, is very crowded in the spring.
17. Correct
18. Meredith, you are going to Los Angeles on business, aren't you? 19. Correct
20. You know, of course, that she is not coming to the seminar.
21. In fact, their credit card balance was far too high.
22. Correct 23. Correct
24. The basketball center for our college team is 7 feet, 3 inches tall.
25. In the middle of a huge project at work, the manager resigned.

Directions: Rewrite the following sentences, correcting any faulty parallelism.
1. Are you here to apply for a job, buy something, or do you want to enroll in a cooking class?
Are you here to apply for a job, to buy something, or to enroll in a cooking class?
2. My favorite ways to relax are to take a drive in the country, working out at the gym, and then watch an old movie.
My favorite ways to relax; are to take a drive in the country, to work out at the gym, and then to watch an old movie.
3. Being late for work, forgetting to wear your identification badge, and too many coffee breaks will get you fired.
Being late for work, forgetting to wear your identification badge, and too many coffee -breakings will get you fired.
OR To be late for work, to forget to wear your identification badge, and to take too many coffee breaks will get you fired.
4. You should pursue either a career in nursing or become a doctor.
You should pursue either a career in nursing or you should pursue a doctor.
5. The teacher has always tried to be fair in his grading practices, suggest a number of ways to improve, and always having very organized lessons.

Directions: Rewrite the following sentences, correcting any illogical shifts in verb tense.
Example: I offered him a chair and sit beside him.
I offer him a chair and sit beside him.
OR I offered him a chair and sat beside him.
1. One night last summer, we walked on the golf course and watch the meteor shower. ( watched)
2. When I suddenly came upon a hummingbird, it flies away.
It fled away
3. In March, Gary decides to quit his job and returned to college.
( decided )
4. The child jumps with joy to win the second-place trophy, but her mother was not pleased.
5. She picked flowers from her garden and gives them to her lonely neighbor.

Directions: Circle the correct verb form in parentheses.
1. He is (laying / lying) on the floor.
2. The fog has (raised / risen) above the trees.
3. The child (set / sat) by her mother’s bedside for hours.
4. The potatoes have (laid / lain) in the fields since last week.
5. (Raise / Rise) your hand if you have a question.
6. He (laid / lay) unconscious in the hospital for two weeks.
7. I (set / sat) the notebook on the chair when I arrived.
8. Smoke (raised / rose) from all of the chimneys in the village.
9. Dylan has (laid / lain) the baby in the crib.
10. Let’s (lay / lie) out by the pool for the afternoon.

What's happened in my county, what's beyond ?
That's my sorry, we are the victim of the world!
Arabs forget their honour bend as slaves!
We are wounded by Arabs even to say hi
Stabled in one stable neither shame nor shy.

1. He never has and never will be admitted to that group .
He never has admitted, and never will admit to that group.
2. They have already and will in the future treat their relatives
with great consideration.
They have already treated their relatives with great consideration and will continue to do so.
3. I was accustomed to that sort of thing and the others also .
I was accustomed to that sort of thing and the others are also.
4. Human beings have and do inhabit this dreary country.
Human beings have inhabited and still inhabit this dreary country.




Rule
When prepositions are used before items in a series of three, there are two possibilities with regard to their use. Either a single preposition is used before the first item in a series (but not with the next two items) or prepositions are used before each item in the series.
Underline and punctuate the appositives and adjective clauses in the following sentences.

2. indicate whether the appositive is a noun, noun phrase, noun clause, gerund phrase, or infinitive phrase. If the sentence contains an adjective clause, write adjective clause in the blank


1. Only two species of condors the California condor and the Andean condor are in existence today.
Only two species of condors, the California condor and the Andean condor, are in existence today. Noun phrase
2. The California condor's possible extinction, a subject of much debate, led to their declaration as endangered species. Noun phrase

Noun clauses
Subject:
1. What you do about it is your business.
2. How he solved the mystery is a mystery to me.
Direct Object:
1. He did not like anyone telling him what he must do.
2. We have not decided whether to take a vacation this year.

Indirect Object:
1. We should give whomever we meet a friendly greeting.
2. We should give whoever greets us a return greeting.
Object of a Preposition:
1. Our reputation depends on how we treat others.
2. You can tell his character by what he says about morality. Predicate Nominative:
1. It is not true that God is whatever you think He is.
2. The situation was not what you said.
Appositive:
1. His alibi, that he was out of town that night, was proven to be false.
2. She could not accept the reality that her mother had died.

Appositive punctuation:
1. Only two species of condors, the California condor and the Andean condor, are in existence today. noun phrase
2. The California condor's possible extinction, a subject of much debate, led to their declaration as endangered species.
noun phrase
3. By 1983, their total known population, only 22 birds, was said to be dangerously low. noun phrase
4. A crisis in 1985, the death of six condors, stirred more preservation action. noun phrase
5. The desire of wildlife officials, that the condors be saved, brought strong support from conservationists. noun clause.
6. The action of the government, capturing the remaining condors, required ingenuity. gerundial phrase
7. Several alleged threats—hunters, poisoning, and industrial development—were cited as problems for the condors.
noun, gerund, noun phrase—series with internal punctuation
8. Lloyd Kiff, an ornithologist, led the California condor recovery team. noun phrase
The team's decision to breed condors in captivity was questioned by some. infinitive phrase

4. The researcher said that the ozone levels were unsafe.
Noun clause \ direct object
5. The metropolitan council objected when the Chief Minister changed his mind. Adverb clause
6. It is regrettable that Ali will not return.
Adverb modifying the predicative adjective regrettable
7. Why you don't do your work is illogical to me. Subject
8. This memorial park is where your dog is buried.
Predicative nominative
9. The information that the land is under water is very confusing. Appositive
10. They offered whoever told the truth forgiveness.
Indirect object

1. Anyone who looked at Medusa was immediately turned into stone.
Medusa was the mythological Gorgon with a head full of snakes.
Ans. Anyone who looked at Medusa, the mythological Gorgon with a head full of snake, was immediately turned into stone
2. Perseus was the son of the god Zeus and the human princess Danae.
He used a reflecting shield to avoid looking at Medusa while he cut off her head.
Perseus , the son of the god Zeus and the human princess Danae, used a reflecting shield to avoid looking at Medusa while he cut off her head.
3. From blood of the severed head of Medusa came Pegasus. Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse.
Pegasus , a beautiful winged horse, came from blood of the severed head of Medusa.
4. Pegasus was ridden by the Greek muses as well as by Apollo. He was a symbol of the poetic imagination.
Pegasus, a symbol of the poetic imagination, was ridden by the Greek muses as well as by Apollo.
5. Athena was the Greek goddess of wisdom. Perseus gave the severed head of Medusa to Athena, who placed it on her own shield.
Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, was given severed head of Medusa placed it on her own shield.
She could not accept the reality that her mother had died.

The reality that her mother had died, she could not accept.

The death of her mother, was the reality that she could not accept.

That her mother had died, she could accept to.

In my favorite Japanese restaurant, the food is fascinating and the drinks are expensive.

Be sure to hang on to the handlebars.
If you climb onto that beam, you might get hurt.
After visiting the space museum, we moved on to the aquarium.
To get a better view, we went onto the ridge.
Adjective clauses
2. Nobody knows the reason why he resigned. why he resigned (qualifying noun reason)
3. We saw the palace where the Chinese emperor lived.
where the Chinese emperor lived (qualifying noun palace)
4. Can you please tell me the year when our country became independent? 4 when our country became independent (qualifying noun year)
5. We sent fifty athletes, twenty of whom were women.
twenty of whom were women (qualifying noun athletes)
6. He bought a kilogramme of peas, 30% of which were rotten.
7. The police arrested the man from whom the boys bought the drugs.
Ex 5 Underline the noun phrases in the sentences below. State what types of noun phrases they are if you can. The first one has been done for you.
1 His habit, talking while the teachers are teaching, makes them very angry. Noun phrase, in apposition to the noun habit
2 We object to their using our classroom for their meeting.
3 Their greatest happiness is camping in the jungle.
4 The boy regrets not taking an umbrella with him.
5 Watching DVDs is not a good way of passing the time.
7 I dislike people interfering in my affairs.
8 What I hate most is people smoking in my presence.
9 He stopped the child crying by giving him a sweet.
10 It is good to exercise every day.
11 To go to market with his mother is what he hates most.
12 Her father wants to visit China one day.
13 The rich man's greatest sorrow is being childless.
14 His action, beating the boy, made the boy's parents very angry.
15 Some passers-by stopped the man from jumping off the bridge.
16 It is stupid to gamble.

Noun clauses
4 He thinks that everybody is bad. ( object )
5 That his children will not take care of him makes him sad. S
6 How her son will pass his examination worries her a lot. S
7 I believe that everybody can succeed with hard work. O
8. The rich man's greatest regret was that he never had a good education. ( predicate nominative \ complement of verb to be )
9 The realisation that his friend had betrayed him made him very unhappy. Appositive
10 It is better that he stays at home. ( in apposition of pronoun it)
11 Helen proposed that we visit Singapore this year. ( object )
12 The girl's nightmare that she would die of cancer did not come true. ( appositive )
Adjective clauses
6 The attaché case which is on the general manager's desk contains very important documents.
7 His computer, which he bought last year, is giving him problems. 8 Her car which is already ten years old is still serving her well.
9 These durians which are from Malaysia taste the best.
10 The dog, which guards his house, is very fierce indeed.
11 The boiler suit which has blue and green stripes belongs to my father.
12 Her sister, who was wearing a pearl necklace, was seated next to a distinguished-looking man.
13 The esplanade, which is situated beside a clear, blue sea, is used by the public for strolling or jogging.
14 These charm bracelets which are from Bali are unique.
15 The ship, which was lost, was later found on the ocean bed.
16 The vase which was broken is not mine.

Due to or owing to
Fill in the blanks in the sentences below with either due to or owing to.
1. She drove to work…owing to…. the heavy rain.
2. Her driving to work was due to……. the heavy rain.
3. …owing to…….the heavy traffic, he drives slowly.
4. His slow driving is due to……the heavy traffic.
6. Our inability to eat is due to……. the fact that the food is burnt.
7 owing to…….. the economic slowdown, many factories have closed down.
8 The closing down of many factories is due to….. the economic downturn.
9 He failed the examination …owing to his laziness.
10 His failure in the examination was…due to… his laziness.
11 …owing to….his broken arm, he could not write.
12 His inability to write was …due to…..his broken arm.
13 She was unhappy working in the factory owing to the poor pay
14 Her unhappiness with working in the factory is due to the poor pay.

According to the Chamber's Dictionary, English Prepositional Idioms by Frederick T. Wood and A Dictionary of Modern English Usage by H. W. Fowler, the use of due to in the manner below is wrong. • Due to illness, he did not go to work. X According to the references, due to is adjectival with the meaning of caused by and can only be used after the verb be. Look at the sentence below: • His absence from work was due to illness. ✓ (It means: His absence from work was caused by illness.) The sentence needs owing to which is adverbial and means because of. Look at the sentences below: • Owing to illness he did not go to work. ✓ (It means: Because of illness, he did not go to work.) • He did not go to work owing to illness. ✓ (It means: He did not go to work because of illness.) Another way of deciding whether to use due to or owing to is to remember that due to is used with two nouns (absence and illness in the sentence above) and owing to is used with a noun and a verb (illness and go in the sentences above).

Ex 1 mistakes
Below are more examples of sentences with various types of mistakes.
1 He whispered softly into her ear. ( correct or not necessary)
I noticed the same sentence in many books online
2 The amount is payable by Mastercard, Visa Card or Citibank Card. (with )
3 To start the fire alarm, break the glass. ( set off \ activate )
To set off \ activate the fire alarm, break the glass.
4 He can kick the ball with either leg. (foot)
Kicking ball by feet not by legs
5 Please accept it. It is a well-articulated essay. (correct or written)
6 I am finding my handbag. I find \ looking for \ searching for
7 There were two towns on the Perak River. All of them were commercial and trading centres.
There were two towns on the Perak River. Both of them were commercial centres (remove one of the synonyms )
8 The alphabets B and R are missing from the words Bryant Park making them yant Park. ( letters )
9. My friend acted as Master of Ceremony. ( master of ceremonies )
10. Congratulation in winning the first prize. ( congratulations on)
11 Thank for the help. Thanks
12 We visited to the Bird Park last Saturday. ( remove to )
13 The firemen put off the fire. ( out )
14. The car lost control and crashed into the ditch.
( the driver lost control not the car)
15. She is living in the island. ( on )
16. when you put your mind on it, you can succeed. ( to it)
17 There is a crossroad a hundred metres ahead. ( crossroads)
18 The salary commensurate qualifications and experience.
The salary is commensurate with qualifications and experience.

19 A staff is on leave.
A member of the staff is on leave. An employee is on leave
20 Name an advantage of using a motorcycle. ( give)
21 The street to London is well surfaced. ( road)
22 She failed reply the letter. ( to reply to \ to answer the )
23 He is collecting materials for his latest book. ( material )
24 Although he is very strong but he is a coward. ( remove but)
25 They often swam in Krian River.
( the Krian River)
26 Give me a glass of ice coffee, please. ( a cup – iced )
27 He is cleverest boy in the class. ( the cleverest )
28 He has read the Treasure Island. ( omit the )
29 Please be quiet. He is reading his books. ( he is studying)
30 She is working hardly. ( hard )
31 I called you to wash your school shoes but you did not.
( asked \ requested you)
32 There is a cheap sale in that supermarket. ( at that )
33 He is very good at playing the football. ( remove the)
34 He went on a trip at the bird park. ( to)
35 He is reading comics to waste his time.
He wastes his time by reading comics.
36 He is the second last pupil in that row.
He is the last but one pupil in that row.
37 He turned to left and proceeded along the street. Omit to
38 Tokyo is a picturesque modern city.
( beautiful >>picturesque is used for an old-fashioned)
39 He tried and snatched the handbag of the woman.
( tried to snatch two different actions )
40 The number of girls in this class is many. ( big)
41 A Quran is a holy book. ( the )
42 John or May are coming. ( is )
43 The king with two wives are fat. ( is )
44 I don't hardly know how to answer him. ( I hardly know)
45 She is very loved by her parents. ( much with past participle)

1. To wield an ax requires strength. = subject
2. We like to travel. = object
3. Nothing remains but to surrender. =object of a preposition
4. We study to learn. = adverb \ purpose
5. Milk to drink should be pure. = appositive
6. The boy working in the garden is my brother.
participle adjective
7. Sawing wood is hard work. = noun \ subject

Some time or sometime
1 After having waited…some time… for his food and drink to be served, he got up and walked out of the restaurant in disgust.
2 They went to see their retired headmaster…sometime… in December.
3 The girls took quite …some time.. to learn the skill of weaving kain songket.
4 The manager left the factory…sometime. in the afternoon.
5 It has been quite some time…… since I last saw him.
6 It took the child…some time… to learn to walk.
7 It was …sometime… in January last year that the child took his first faltering steps.
8 Changing the curtains will take…some time……
9. You have to go to his house sometime in the morning if you want to see him.
Use tell with personal object and use say when there is no personal object



PRE–TEST EXERCISE
Underline all noun phrases, including gerunds, in the following sentences
1.Buying a new car could cost more than fixing this old one.
2.The preferred activity of pre-school children is watching cartoon on television.
3.I hope the bride and groom enjoy my singing at their wedding.
4.The government is thinking of imposing a new regime of property tax.5.The effort that was put into the planning of this event was more than commendable.6.Nobody on the planning committee recognized the error that was created in the financial statement.
7.Too many people are living on the streets of the capital.
8.The plants that were brought in from the nursery have been infected with an air bornedisease.
9.The captain of the team is the most important person on the field.
10.Whenever we fail to practice, we perform poorly.

Underline the noun phrases in these sentences.
a. We wanted to go swimming on Sunday.
b. Being team captain was her greatest dream.
c. Seeing you there was such a surprise.
d. We must learn to care for each other.
e. Riding skateboards is not allowed here!
2. Select a noun phrase to complete each sentence.
climbing Mt. Everest to fly solo leaving all my friends
to get home growing orchids waiting patiently
a. Mr. Costa enjoys growing orchids in his greenhouse.
b. Leaving all my friends was really sad.
c. Jayden wanted to get home before nightfall.
d. Waiting patiently is hard when you are really excited.
e. Climbing Mt. Everest was Sir Edmund Hillary’s greatest achievement.
f. Smithy’s dream was across the Atlantic Ocean.
Adjective phrases
4 The woman shouted at the boy playing in the rain.
5 Unemployed for many months, the man cannot support his family. 6 The plug with the broken fuse cannot be used.
7 The house costing a million dollars belongs to my uncle.
8 Unused for many months, the car cannot be started.
9 The grille locked from inside prevented firemen from rescuing the children.
10 Taking a bath. the woman did not hear the phone ring.
11 The liquid in the bottle is poisonous.
12 The letter from her mother informed the girl of her father's illness.
13 The man climbing the tree is going to pick the fruits.
14 Torn by the baby, the paper cannot be used any more.
I5 The man with his wife and children is here.
16 The house beside the sea is a rich man's holiday bungalow.
17 The clothes worn by the beggar are old, torn, dirty and smelly. 18 The bus to Singapore starts its journey at 8.30 pm.
19 The boy without his father is helpless.
20 Jogging in the housing estate, the man enjoys watching the residents going about their daily activities.

The elderly man with the walking stick bought three tins of organic soup.

Some Time, Sometime, Sometimes Some time, sometime, and sometimes have different meanings and are often confused.
Some time is made up of an adjective and a noun and means "an amount of time."
Whenever you have some time to chat, feel free to visit me. Some time has passed since our last conversation.
Sometime is an adverb. It means "an unspecified time." No one is sure when, but the dog will have to eat sometime.
Sometimes is also an adverb, but it means "now and then." Sometimes I feel so clever that I could do anything.

combine sentences (a and b) so that sentence (b) becomes a that-nominal clause as a complement of the subject in ( a)

I. a. The chances are these. b. We will win the match.
The chance is that we will win match.
2 a. The suggestion was this. b. The meeting should be held after two months.
The suggestion was that the meeting should be held after two months.
3. a. The assumption is this. b. Democracy will survive.
4. a. The decision was this. b. Varun would be given a scholarship.
5. a. My advice is this. b. You should attend the interview tomorrow.


a slice of delicious home-made chocolate cake with cherries on top
INFINITIVE PHRASES Chapter 5 discussed infinitives as subjects. In this chapter, you will learn about infinitive phrases, word groups that consist of an infinitive, which is the simple form of the verb preceded by to, and its modifiers—words that describe the infinitive or tell you more about the infinitive. Here are some examples: to save money to eat more healthfully to hear the story Each infinitive phrase begins with an infinitive and is followed by words that tell readers more about the infinitive. These additional words modify or complement the infinitive. For example, in the infinitive phrase to hear the story, to hear is the infinitive, and the story modifies the infinitive because it tells readers what is being heard.

D. Underline the noun phrases in the following sentences.
1. His ailing father wished to speak to him once.
2. The poor man wanted to pay every penny he had borrowed.
3. The green coconut on the shelf seems wonderful.
4. I regretted punishing my old servant.
5. Good thoughts fetch good results.
6. The white pigeon flew away.
7. The withered leaf fell down on the road.
8. The dark and dusty lane did not attract me.
9. He refused to answer the difficult question. in. Did you enjoy reading this book?
Underline and punctuate the appositives and adjective clauses in the following sentences. In the blanks, indicate whether the appositive is a noun, noun phrase, noun clause, gerund phrase, or infinitive phrase. If the sentence contains an adjective clause, write adjective clause in the blank.
I. The Infinitive (Phrase) as Noun. May serve as a subject, subject complement, object of an action verb but NOT as an object of a preposition.
EXAMPLES: To write well is a great talent. [subject]
In speech class, she learned to enunciate her words. [direct object] My goal is to earn $100,000 per year. [subject complement; goal = to earn $100,000 per year]
Infinitive Phrase as Noun Test If the infinitive phrase can be replaced by it, the phrase is used as a noun. Using the last example above: EXAMPLES: My goal is it.
2. Infinitive (Phrase) as Adjective. Like an adjective, an infinitive (phrase) may modify a (pro)noun.
EXAMPLES: He has money to burn. [modifies money]
To write well is a great talent to have in life. [modifies talent] Verona has great desire to play the lead. [modifies desire]
3. Subject Complement. Following a linking verb, an infinitive phrase that begins with to be is followed by a gerund, and serves as a predicate nominative; an infinitive phrase that begins with to have is followed by a participial, and serves as a predicate adjective.
EXAMPLES: He seems to be getting on in years. [he = to be getting on in years; predicate nominative]
He appears to have played quite a bit. [He = to have played quite a bit; predicate adjective]

Preposition
A preposition is usually placed before its object as may be seen in the above examples, but in certain cases it follows its object
5. a. Which of the benches did you sit on?
b. What are you arguing about?
c. What are you staring at?
d. That is the book I was talking about.
e. There is the pen that you asked for.
f. What are you thinking of?
When the object of the preposition is the relative pronoun 'that', the preposition is always placed at the end.
6. a. Here is the bowl that you have been looking for.
b. Where is the letter that I asked you about?
c. This is the bag that I was speaking of.

Noun phrases
1 Jogging in the housing estate is his main form of exercise. (Noun phrase, subject of the verb is)
2 She likes to grow flowers. (Noun phrase, object of the verb likes) 3 My greatest pleasure is reading a good novel. (Noun phrase, complement of the verb-to-be is)
4 The man derives great happiness by watching others suffer. (Noun phrase, object of the preposition by)
5 His habit, tanning his Pencil on his desk, irritates his teachers. (Noun phrase, in apposition to the noun habit)
6 It is bad to smoke. (Noun phrase, in apposition to the pronoun it) Note: When a noun phrase is in apposition to a noun or pronoun, it simply means that the phrase is grammatically parallel to the noun or pronoun. In ordinary language, it means that they refer to the same thing.

Lie \ lay
The lion and the calf shall lie down together, but the calf won't get much sleep. (Woody Allen)
An alibi? I just lay on the sofa all night, watching The Simpson.
(lay - past tense of to lie)
The snow lay on the field all week
Mark had lain at the foot of the knoll for hours.
(Use lain for the past tense if it is partnered with the word have
(in its various forms; i.e. has, had, have, will have, having).
The word lain is the past participle of to lie.)
Adversity has the effect of eliciting talents, which in prosperous circumstances would have lain dormant.
1. He came and lay his books on the dining table. X
He came and laid his books on the dining table. ✓
2. He always lies his books on the dining table. X
He always lays his books on the dining table. ✓
3. I saw that he was lying cash in his safe. X
I saw that he was laying cash in his safe. ✓
4. Has The Prime Minister lain the foundation stone of a new hospital? X
Has The Prime Minister laid the foundation stone of a new hospital? ✓
5. She came and laid on the couch. X
She came and lay on the couch. Correct

4. Put in a, an, the if necessary
1. Can you give me …a .glass of water please?
2. I see …a…book over there. Whose is it?
3. Can I take …the…camera on the table?
4. Istanbul is…a… big city.
5. Ankara and Izmir are …X…big cities.
6. January is…a… cold month.
7. What is…the… second month of the year?
8. …the…water in jug isn't clean.
9…an.. apple …a..day is good for us.
10. Can you see the boy at the corner?

Appositive
underline the appositive and circle the noun or noun phrase that it refers to
1. My determination, to see a wild tiger in my lifetime, brought me to Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, one of 40 in India.
2. "This is about making decisions as if we're in an emergency room: says Tom Kaplan, co-founder of Panthera, an organization dedicated to big cats.
3. The places that have actual tigers—here-and-now, flesh-and-blood tigers—as opposed to hypothetical ones, are represented by a scattering of brown-colored spots.
4. Over the next decade, infrastructure projects—the kind of development that often destroys habitat—are projected to average some $750 billion a year in Asia.
5. In November 2010—the Year of the Tiger—the world's 13 tiger countries came together at the Global Tiger Summit in St. Petersburg, Russia.

1. We met him, the prize winner, on our way to the school.
2. The boy you told us about, Jusu, is in town.
3. The subject matter, condemnation of drug abuse, is in place.
4. The two hills, Maamba and Turgboo, are in Sierra Leone.
5. We met him, the principal, on our way to the school.
6. His autobiography, At Last, won him award in the 80s.
7. I want to spend the holiday with parents in my village, Fandou. 8. 1975, the year I was born, was graceful year for my family.
9. Paulina, our prefect, will be with our English teacher, Mr. V. Bangali.
10. The president visited two schools, Methodist and National.
11. The highest mountain, Maamba, is very close to my village.
12. They informed the chief, man of the people, about our party. 13. In the book, Simplify English Grammar, grammar is simplified. 14. Cutting the Chain, a drama written by Paul, is very interesting. 15. We saw cobra, the worst tropical snake on earth, in the forest. 16. Mohamed Kallon, Sierra Leonean international footballer, is generous.
17. Baba Alpha, a very faithful Muslim, has become a born-again pastor.
18. Massa Sama, the wife of the writer, is very beautiful.
19. Foday Sankoh, the leader of RUF rebels, died at the end of the war.
20. He obtained a degree, BA Education, from the prestigious Njala University.
EXERCISE 7
In the sentences below, all participles or participial phrases are in bracket. The present participles or participial phrases are underlined and the past participles or participial phrases are italicized; the modifying nouns are bold. (participial phrase, participle)
1. The (talking p) parrot is destroying my (growing p) plants.
2. The kite (flying in the air pp) will land on the (warming p) leaves. 3. It is the (flowing p) water that brought down this (broken p) statue of the king.
4. The (caring p) parents will treat the (ill-mannered p) behaviour of their children.
5. SLPP (dancing p) group won the (advertised p) position.
6. The (governing p) APC party won the (cheated p) elections.
7. The (sailing p) boat found itself in an (unknown p) destination.
8. Please bring me the (broken p) chair that is in the (dressing p) room.
9. The (exciting .p) fans vigorously clapped for their (winning p) team.
10. (Sleeping up the ceiling, pp) my neighbour's cat cannot catch any rat.
11. Some children (pampered and spoilt by their parents, pp) will rudely behave in (forbidden p) places.
12. Your (singing p) toy scattered the documents (edited and compiled by the secretary
13. The (suspended p) activities will resume on the first (working p) day of this week.
14. (Running like a kangaroo, pp) the boy will take the first position in the (awaiting p) event.
15. (Sitting on the tree, pp) my parrot plucked the (easily destroyed pp) buds on the tree.
16. (Moving along the river pp) Paul sang a love song for his (widely admired pp) Massa.
17. The old woman, (walking slowly, pp) saw the (lost and forgotten p) ring in the grass.
18. The (fast growing pp) economy has no effect on the (less and slowly developing pp) nations.
19. The boy (feeling uneasy to speak, pp) waved vigorously to the (loud cheering pp) spectators.
20. (Developing slowly pp) in the sub-region, Sierra Leone will soon feed her (rapidly growing pp) population.

EXERCISE 14
The adverbial clauses are underlined and the word each clause modifies is bold.
1. When the game ended, we slowly walked back home.
2. I have contributed though you did not inform me.
3. We worked as if we were slaves from North Africa.
4. You must respect her since she is your mother.
5. As soon as finish the exam, you will be given the ticket.
6. They came around as if they were invited.
7. She can't do it because there is no money to pay her.
8. before you and mother came they had fought twice.
9. She must read her book even if I am not around.
10. We can go where they were working last week.
11. I am implementing it as it was planned.
12. If the people want you to come they will call you.
13. We will vote him out when we meet next week.
14. Let's eat the apple of wisdom since we are alone here.
15. Spread the mat if you want the fruit of knowledge.
16. He did the work when I was sleeping.
17. Unless you show me the man I will not give you the message. 18. Whenever they arrive the classes will start.
19. While we are waiting, let us prepare the agenda for the meeting.
20. He is a good coach inasmuch as he can take a team from zero to hero.


Infinitives
1. To eat with kings is considered as special blessing.
a subject of the sentence
2. He loves to move about at night.
a direct object
3. To find a life-changing job is also a difficult job.
a subject of the sentence
4. They are wealthy enough to live on few dollars per day.
an adverb of manner to qualify enough
5. My Massa is a lady to admire and copy for her neatness.
an adjective to describe lady
6. Humans are creatures to study carefully.
an adjective to describe creatures
7. Are you ready to pay for it now?
an adverb of manner to qualify ready
8. He laughed to satisfy everyone in the party.
an adverb of reason to qualify laughed
9. I will pay to eat and dance for the rest of the day.
an adverb of reason to qualify pay
10. Now is the time to pray.
an adjective to describe time
11. We have come to mourn our grandparents.
an adverb of reason to qualify come
12. The tradition demands us to do so. a direct object
13. We bring them to entertain us. an adverb of reason to qualify bring
14. To do hard work may be dangerous to your health.
a subject of the sentence health.
15. They deserve to win the scholarship. a direct object
16. To talk like a parrot is what I admire. a subject of the sentence 17. He has come to disturb us today. an adverb of reason to qualify come
18. tell them to move backward. a direct object
19. Mohamed has come to see us for his arrangement.
an adverb of reason to qualify come
20. To be a man is not a day job. a subject of the sentence

Appositives-infinitives
To reach your ambition, you ought to persevere.
(infinitive phrase) (infinitive)
2. Mrs. Teodosia , my constant companion, owns a beach resort. (appositive phrase.)
3. Eleanor wrote me a note to inform me of the meeting.
(infinitive phrase)
4. The reward, a cash prize and a trophy, was announced last (appositive phrase)
to give it importance. (infinitive phrase)
5. Dad gave me a gift, something he had promised me.
(appositive phrase)

Figurative of speech
simile تشبيه
Her hair was as soft as a kitten's fur
مجاز \ استعارة metaphor
His gaze was all steel and flint
نظراته فولاذية \ قوية \ ثاقبة
hyperbole
مبالغة أكثر من اللزوم \ غلو في الكلام
I have told you ten million times not to exaggerate
alliteration
تكرار الحرف -جناس
Paper has more patience than people
personification
The mist seemed to sympathize with the mourners standing at the graveside
تجسيد صورة في صورة
غالبا تعطى صفة إنسان لجماد أو حيوان
onomatopoeia
محاكاة صوتية
The bacon sizzled in the pan
use or formation of words which sound like the meaning they represent (i.e. ding-dong)
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is gross exaggeration to produce a literary or rhetorical effect. It Is obvious exaggeration with an emphasis that is not intended to be taken literally.
I was so parched I could have drunk a river-full of water.
An aged man—easily twice as old as Methuselah—stood on the dock, gazing out into the sea.
Metonymy
مجاز مرسل استخدام كلمة للإشارة إلى أخرى من نفس الصنف أو ذات علاقة مثلا عرش إلى مملكة
Metonymy is the use of one word to suggest another word or idea with which the selected word Is associated or of which the selected word is reminiscent
They took Issue with City Hall. He has a reputation for chasing skirts
Limiting one's diet to the garden for a week will likely have a slimming effect
Litotes
صيغة بلاغية يعبر عن الموجب بضده المنفي
Litotes make a point by denying the opposite
The thunder was no light roar. The fire was no small blaze
المراد بالتعبير (النقيض أو العكس)
Onomatopoeia
سبق شرحها في أعلاه
The use of a word whose very sound suggests its meaning is called onomatopoeia
whoosh, buzz, fizz, splash, whistle, whine, squeal.
Oxymoron
الإرداف الخلفي ايضا يتضمن تناقض بين كلمتين
An oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory words
His thundering silence gave everyone concern
سكوته الصاعق استرعى انتباه الجميع
نلاحظ من طرف سكوت ( صمت ) ومن الطرف الأخر كلمة هيّاجة ( مدوي \ هادر )
Their son was a holy terror. He was a communist entrepreneur.
Anachronisms
مفارقة تأريخية
An anachronism is the rhetorical misplacement of an object, person, or event in an implausible or impossible setting or period of time
Several television sets were arranged on the Round Table so that each of Arthur's blights could watch the football game without leaving their assigned seats.
Antony and Cleopatra were quite the jetsetters. Write a sentence illustrating each of the following literary devices