at the end of the year \ month \ day, etc

at the end of the book \ at the end of the lesson \ at the end of the street \ road, etc

2
in the end: In the end, she decided to leave her country

ing adjectives and -ed adjectives
We use ing adjectives to describe the thing or person that causes the feeling ( the source of effect)
We use the ed adjectives to describe the person who has the feeling ( receivor)
الأولى المسبب أو مصدر التأثير كأن يكون مصدر إزعاج أو راحة والخ
وبالمناسبة ممكن يكون إنسان لأنه البعض يتصور أن الإنسان ليس مشمولا بهذا الوصف
خطية والله !! بني الإنسان هم أكثر مصادر الإزعاج في الكرة الأرضية
الثانية من يقع عليه فعل المسبب ( التأثير ) أي المستلم
example
My first teacher was so ( frightening / frightened ) that I never spoke in class
Correct = frightening ( his figure fears me)
كان أستاذي الأول مرعبا جدا ولهذا كنت لا أتكلم في الصف مطلقا

البعض يختار frightened = غلط

The proposal of Martin and William was outstanding, so the company has funded the project for the next year
a. Martin's and William's proposal
b. Martins' and Williams' proposal
c. Martin and William's proposal = correct answer ( joint)
d. Martin's and William proposal

Martin's and William's proposals = individual فردي
Martin and William's proposal = joint مشترك

. a. I don’t watch any sports except for hockey
.b. I don't watch any sports besides hockey
هل المعنى يختلف بين الجملتين أم كلاهما سيان ؟

Examples
My mom has given behind the freezer a good scrubbing
They say = object ?
let me rewrite the sentence
My mom has given a good scrubbing behind the freezer
Now it is clear = adverb

I lay myself upon the bed. (action) = followed by object
I lie upon the bed . (rest) = no object is needed
I laid myself upon the bed. (action)
I lay upon the bed. (rest)
Lay the book on the table. (action)
The book lies on the table. (rest)
I have laid myself upon the bed. (action)
I have lain upon the bed. (rest)
A hen lays an egg. (action) an egg = object
The ship lies at the wharf. (rest)
The murdered Lincoln lay in state. (rest) past form of lie
The people laid the crime upon the rebels. (action)

As you see the verb lay ---laid --laid = action verb = needs an object
On the other hand, the verb lie--lay - lain does need object

حتى لو -even if
حتى ولو أن even though
ومع ذلكhowever/still
بمجرد أن \ حالما once / as soon as
وإلا \ وبخلاف ذلك otherwise / or
بما أن \ وبسبب أن since
لذلك so
ما لم \ إلا إذاunless
حتى \ إلى حين until
عندما when
في المكان الذي \ حيث where
في حين أن whereas / on the other hand
حيثما \ كلما wherever/ whenever
فيما إذا \ إن كان whether
بينما while

If I --had---(have) a cottage at the seaside, I -would spend---(spend) every summer there

Harry, an evil part of her mind whispered, but she ignored it. She sat, putting her hands against Celina's knees now more to reassure herself than her friend. "All right, so he's contesting it. Big deal. Viv's will was iron clad, and she was of sound mind when she wrote it. There's no way this nephew can win"

First, notice the phrase between commas (an evil part of her mind whispered ) = noun phrase as an appositive to the subject
The word whispered is not used as a verb but as adjective
Sat = the main verb
putting her hands against = participle phrase

Use the correct form of need with the verbs in brackets
(didn't need or needn't have)
I
He (give) her anything, so he didn't
He didn't need to give her anything, so he didn't
هنا المتكلم كان يعلم مسبقا أو علم لاحقا أنه ليس من الضرورة أن يقدم لها شيئا ولهذا لم يعطيها
2
He (give) her anything, but he did, nevertheless
He needn't have given her anything, but he did
هنا في المثال أعلاه قدم لها ( أعطاها ) أي شيء مع أنه يعلم أو ربما لا يعلم أن الأمر ضروري
نلاحظ مع صيغة ال perfect أن الأمر حدث وأنتهى
مرات تأتي هذه الصيغة وكأنه الشخص يتأسف على فعل شيء رغم أنه يعلم كان الأجدر به أن لا يفعله
والمثال الثاني يتضمن هذا المعنى
مثال آخر مع الشرح
Here are two sentences one of which is not acceptable
I did not need to see him, so I sent him a letter. = correct
I needn't have seen him, so I sent him a letter. = not correct
1
I knew it was not necessary for me to see him and I sent him a letter instead
2
Though I knew that it was not necessary for me to see him, I went and met him

I could \ was able to swim when I was five
= general ability in the past
لا تندرج ضمن قابلية محددة أو خاصة أي واحد في عمرة الخامسة ممكن
تكون عنده قابلية على السباحة
Here it tells about general situation not specific
Both ( could and be able to) are used
1. القابلية العامة : هنا الكلام بشكل عام أنه كنت أستطيع السباحة عندما كنت في عمر الخامسة
2. القابلية الخاصة : هذه على الأغلب تأتي معها ظروف مثلا yesterday \ this afternoon لكن ليس شرط من خلال سياق الجملة نفهم الحالة

When the boat upset, they were able to swim to the bank.
= specific event (single achievement)……could is not possible ( upset = verb past)
خما كل يوم ينقلب أو يجنح القارب ؟ هنا بدلالة the boat upset
نفهم أنهم تمكنوا من السباحة نحو الضفة وفعلا عبروا .. = الكلام عن قابلية خاصة
I was able to finish the work yesterday.
= specific event ….Could is not possible
perhaps I already could finish the work but was not able to finish it yesterday.
نلاحظ الطرف الأول من الجملة = قابلية عامة أما الطرف الثاني يحدد القابلية وفق ظرف معين

Oxford Guide to English Grammar - Page 125
But we use was/were able to to talk about an action in a particular situation, when someone had the ability to do something and did it
The injured man was able to walk to a phone box
NOT The injured man could walk to a phone box
Examples from another book
I was able to finish the work this afternoon, because there was nobody to disturb me
not I could finish
I was able to finish the work yesterday. Not could finish
---
However, in negative could not can be used
I could not finish the work yesterday= correct

One of the the students was misguided. Noticing an example in Long-Man grammar book, he came and asked me

" Have you ever been\ gone skiing ? "
هل سبق لك وذهبت لممارسة التزلج \ وأن مارست رياضة التزلج هنا مستخدم كإسم
Here, no doubt the ing form = gerund >> This example is not similar to " I go shopping or I go swimming"
لنترجم المثال الأخير ونرى لأنه الترجمة في كثير من الأحيان تحسم كثيرا من الأمور:
أنا أذهب لأسبح \ أنا أذهب لأتسوق ( يعني مأخذ فعل)
وهناك اختلاف كثير بين النحاة وأغلب المؤلفين منهم من يظن خطئا أنه gerund بعد الفعل go
في الأمثلة
I go swimming \ I go skiing \ I go shopping
بل حتى ضمن ال native speakers من يتوهم
قسم آخر يقول ممارسة \ يذهب يؤدي ممارسة
نعم يؤدي ممارسة ولكن :
I go swimming = the same meaning of : I go to swim
لا فرق في المعنى بين الفعل المضاف له ing والمصدر أي infinitive
يذهب ليسبح أو يذهب ليؤدي السباحة
في العربية نستطيع ترجمتها في كلا النموذجين أعلاه لكن في الإنجليزية تختلف ..
لكن لو قلنا
I go to the river to do the swimming
هنا واضحة كلمة swimming = اسم

• What are the four basic types of infinitive?
1. Simple (present) infinitive > He wants to help poor people.
2. Continuous infinitive > He seems to be crying.
3. Perfect infinitive >> He admitted to have robbed the shop.
4. Perfect continuous infinitive >
He pretended to have been working all day.
• What does a continuous infinitive express?
Continuous infinitives combine with other verbs to express a continuing action. They are formed by combining to be with the present participle of a verb. Their souls are said to be wandering around for eternity. You should be studying for the test!
• What are the four basic types of gerund?
[ subject, direct object, object of preposition, and complement]

Let me explain some example to see how to distinguish between gerund and participle
I go swimming \ I go shopping = participles
I like swimming \ I enjoy shopping = gerunds
Tests
كيف نستطيع معرفة هل أنه gerund أم ing participle ( present participle)
توجد عدة طرق سأذكر اثنان
method one :
test it using the possessive pronoun before the ING form, and when it is acceptable = that ING = gerund ( because it behaves like nouns)
I go your your swimming
swimming ??? Not possible = not gerund
I enjoy your swimming \ your shopping
shopping, swimming = possible = gerund
I like your swimming \ your shopping
swimming and shopping = possible = gerund
. method 2 use the word act
I like the act of swimming = possible = gerund
I go the act of swimming= not possible = not gerund

تمرين عن الضمائر
indefinite pronouns
There were (none /many ✔) in the crowd who wanted to help the girl and did so
none = logically not correct choice
2. notice ( did so ) = offered help
ليس من المعقول خلال الجمع كله لا يوجد إنسان يفعل الخير
كان يوجد الكثيرون من بين الجمع من يرغب مساعدة البنت وفعل ذلك ( هنا did so ) تعطينا إثبات أنه يوجد من يرغب بتقديم المساعدة
Stop crying and help (none /others ✔) in doing their duty
توقف عن البكاء وساعد الآخرين في إداء أعمالهم ( واجباتهم )
Where were you when (few /everyone ✔) was trying to catch the thief?
أين كنت عندما أي فرد (إنسان ) كان يحاول الإمساك باللص
few = لا تناسب لأنه تحتاج فعل جمع وليس مفرد